For all its presence on postcards and popular tourist attractions, the American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) has been largely absent from 性视界传媒 itself. Nearly wiped out from the state in the early 1900s, the species has shown only faint signs of a true comeback.
Now, a new study published in the American Ornithological Society鈥檚 Ornithological Applications journal details how researchers from 性视界传媒鈥檚 and colleagues analyzed the genetic variability, population structure and viable conservation strategies for 性视界传媒鈥檚 American flamingo.
鈥淎s a native Floridian who grew up in Tallahassee, 性视界传媒, I was fascinated and a little surprised to see the flamingo as a prominent state icon, yet I had never seen one in the wild,鈥� says Jessica Folsom 鈥�23MS, who led the study while earning her master鈥檚 degree in biology at 性视界传媒.
The Flamingo’s Lost History
Flamingos were nearly extirpated in 性视界传媒 due to hunting and habitat loss. While later sightings suggested possible natural recolonization, many of the birds were thought to be escapees from zoos or other captive populations rather than signs of a true restoration.
Eric Hoffman, professor and chair of 性视界传媒鈥檚 Department of Biology and a co-author of the study, says the project revealed the depth of what was lost.
鈥淏efore this project, I wasn鈥檛 aware of the historical distribution or how common these birds were in 性视界传媒 100 to 150 years ago,鈥� Hoffman says.
An Unlikely Founding Population
Although flamingo populations remain large in regions near 性视界传媒, including The Bahamas, Cuba and Mexico, 性视界传媒’s first wave of birds originated in an unconventional setting.
鈥淚n the 1920s, the owner of a horse racetrack in Hialeah released roughly 20 flamingos, likely sourced from The Bahamas, as a marketing strategy to boost attendance and betting,鈥� Hoffman says. 鈥淭he birds thrived in the wetland habitat at the track鈥檚 center, forming the founding population for many 性视界传媒 zoo-held flocks, including Zoo Miami鈥檚.鈥�
Signs 性视界传媒 Can Still Support Flamingos
In recent years, researchers say that flamingos generally fly into 性视界传媒 from neighboring regions or arrive after hurricanes. Some flocks remain for months 鈥� evidence that 性视界传媒鈥檚 wetlands can support them 鈥� however, establishing a long-term breeding population remains a primary challenge.
鈥淭hese returning flocks have given us an opportunity to collect contemporary and historical samples to address questions about their genetics and population structure 鈥� a central focus of my lab,鈥� Hoffman says.
What the Genetics Reveal
Folsom, who conducted the research in Hoffman鈥檚 lab as a graduate student and now works as a biologist for the 性视界传媒 Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, says populations that undergo extirpation or steep decline often face consequences such as reduced genetic variability, loss of unique local adaptations or alleles, and, in severe cases, a greater risk of inbreeding.
鈥淚n 性视界传媒, hunting for feathers could have created those conditions,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淗owever, in our study, we found insignificant levels of inbreeding, little loss of genetic variability and minimal differentiation between 性视界传媒 birds, the birds in 性视界传媒 zoos, and other populations in the Caribbean and parts of South America.鈥�
The study included 188 flamingos spanning seven contemporary wild populations 鈥� from Cuba, The Bahamas, Bonaire, the Yucat谩n Peninsula, Mississippi, the Gal谩pagos Islands and 性视界传媒 鈥� as well as managed flocks, or ex-situ, housed in Zoo Miami and Hialeah Park. It also included five historical populations from Cuba, The Bahamas, Mexico, 性视界传媒 and the Gal谩pagos Islands.
Because wild 性视界传媒 specimens are limited, the team used other Caribbean wild populations as genetic proxies. Using whole genome sequencing across more than two million loci 鈥� the fixed positions of genes on a chromosome 鈥� the team analyzed data using bioinformatics software on 性视界传媒鈥檚 high-performance computing cluster, Stokes.
鈥淥ne of our most surprising findings was that modern flamingos showed significant genetic variability compared to historical populations,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淐aptive populations showed the greatest genetic variability and minimal inbreeding, meaning they could be strong candidates for reintroduction. Genetic similarities also indicate flamingos from other regions could adapt well to 性视界传媒, with limited risk of outbreeding depression.鈥�
Researchers emphasize that reintroduction must be paired with policy change.
鈥淔or more than a century, there were almost no conservation measures for flamingos in the U.S.,鈥� says Steven Whitfield, director of Terrestrial and Wetlands Conservation at the Audubon Nature Institute and a co-author of the study. 鈥淭hat鈥檚 partly because flamingos were long considered a non-native species to 性视界传媒. With our work, we want to show they have always belonged here and there鈥檚 a scientific basis to support their recovery.鈥�
Why Policy Matters as Much as Habitat
A petition to classify the birds as threatened was filed with the state, Whitfield says, but the proposal did not advance, stating that flamingos don鈥檛 warrant inclusion on the threatened species list. Some officials have cited existing protections, such as Everglades National Park, as sufficient. Researchers disagree, saying habitat protections alone cannot ensure the species鈥� survival or population restoration.
鈥淭his study provides the evidence needed to prove that birds raised by zoos are a viable genetic match, opening the opportunity for reintroduction from zoo populations,鈥� Whitfield says.
Meanwhile, public momentum is strengthening legislative interest.
鈥淭here is sustained statewide support for naming the flamingo 性视界传媒鈥檚 official state bird, and bills are now under review in both the 性视界传媒 House and Senate,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淭hey鈥檙e often the first image that comes to mind when you think of 性视界传媒, and that recognition drives ecotourism and public enthusiasm, which also supports broader wetland conservation efforts.鈥�
Successful recovery efforts in other regions point to promising intervention strategies.
鈥淎rtificial nest mounds can encourage breeding, and decoy flamingos have been used to signal an established flock, helping attract passing birds,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淏oth tactics have shown success in human care and select wild settings.鈥�
A Path Forward for Restoration
While the long-term outlook for flamingos is good, the small numbers in 性视界传媒 are not enough for the species to recover. Moreover, habitat destruction, pollution and warming temperatures add to the challenges they face.
鈥淣atural recovery of the flamingo is unlikely in 性视界传媒 without intervention,鈥� Whitfield says. 鈥淏ut our study shifts that conversation. We can now confidently say ex-situ flamingos are genetically compatible with wild populations, which opens possibilities for a future release program, even though logistical hurdles remain.鈥�
For the researchers, the study has not only demonstrated how genetics can inform conservation but also provided an opportunity to raise awareness about an iconic species that has always been native to 性视界传媒.
鈥淕rowing up in 性视界传媒, it鈥檚 impossible not to appreciate its biodiversity,鈥� Folsom says. 鈥淲orking on this project with passionate colleagues like Eric and Steven has been incredibly rewarding, helping clarify the flamingos鈥� history in 性视界传媒 and the value of protecting and reintroducing them.鈥�
